Manipuri Literature in History By Thingam Kishan Singh
Manipuri literature bears the imprint of the state's encounter with three civilisational paradigms-conversion into Hinduism in 18th century, annexation by the British in 1891, and its merger with India in 1949. These encounters produced the rejection/acceptance syndrome in literature, reflecting the people's struggle to come to terms with itself.
Over centuries, the people inhabiting what is presently called Manipur experienced numerous upheavals as a result of clashes with different cultures and powers. Known as Kathe to the Burmese, Meklee to the Assamese, Mooglie to the Cacharies, Cassey to the Shans, the people of this ancient Asiatic Kingdom, have witnessed three major epoch-making encounters in the vicissitudes of its history. Based on these encounters, the paper seeks to scrutinize certain aspects of Manipuri literature as it unfolds during the travails of its growth and development, and its engagements with the changing realities.
Even though signs of Manipur's contact with Hinduism can be traced to King Charairongba's reign in the 17th century, it was King Pamheiba's ascension to the throne in 1709 that saw the brutal imposition of Hinduism. The ensuing clash between the indigenous Meetei faith and the alien Hindu faith was essentially an encounter between two traditional cultures and worldviews. The second has been the encounter with the Western civilization vis-à-vis the British conquest of Manipur in 1891 though its contact with the British was established much earlier. The impact of the encounter with the British immediately followed by the two World Wars brought about a massive change in the collective experience and consciousness reflected in terms of cultural values being rendered more open, liberal, equalitarian and humanistic. The second encounter also brought far-reaching political changes in the wake of the swelling tide of decolonisation that swept Asia, Africa and Latin America. Manipur eventually became free from British control in 1947 and remained a sovereign democratic state till its 'integration' with the newly independent State of India on the 15th October 1949. The third encounter comes with this contact with India. It presents a queer picture of an encounter with another not too dissimilar entity.1 With its own logic, the society and culture of this ancient Asiatic land has experienced the dynamics of these encounters.
PECULIAR KEEPERS OF THE ORAL TRADITION:
Manipuri literature till the 17th century has been said to constitute its early period. Ritual songs and hymns composed before the advent of the Manipuri script2 form part of the corpus of the literature of the early period. These songs and hymns are not treated as folk songs or part of folklore as they were not widespread amongst the people. Neither were they handed orally through successive generations. They were confined to a certain erudite section of performers whose performances were limited to 'particular ceremonial functions, ritual observance and festive occasions.' (3)
The manuscript Panthoibi-Khongkul gives an account of the religious and social festival known as the 'Lai Haraoba' where the Khaba community paid homage to the deity Nongpok Ningthou and his consort Panthoibi. This festival, believed by scholars to be part of the cosmological theory of creation in Meetei myth, is a repository of numerous songs. Significant among these Lai Haraoba songs found in Panthoibi Khongkul are the 'Ougri', 'Khencho', 'Anoirol' and 'Lairemma Paosa'. 'Ougri' and 'Khencho' are much more archaic in diction and steep in historical allusions. 'Ougri' is also mentioned in the manuscript Laisra Pham as a coronation song on the occasion of the ascension of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba in AD 33.'
The royal chronicle known as Cheitharol Kumbaba begins with Nongda Lairen Pakhangba's ascension to the throne in AD 33. Another manuscript titled Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba refers to the 'Ougri' as an important aspect of Meetei culture and tradition. The lines of the first part of 'Ougri' comprise of six syllables each while those in the second part comprise of eight syllables. Noted for its cadentic quality, 'Khencho' remains as an obscure and unintelligible literary piece to the modern generation. Still considered as one of the most important components of the Lai Haraoba festival, this immensely rhythmic song is characterized by its archaic diction. It consists of lines of six syllables each. 'Lairemma Paosa' and 'Anoirol' are based on the theme of love. Diction appears to be comparatively simple in these songs with a lyrical flow created through alliteration and rhythm. Another song associated with the festival is the 'Hijan Hirao', a long narrative poem extremely lyrical and sentimental. Some other prominent songs associated with rituals are 'Ahonglon', 'Yakeiba', 'Pakhangba Langyensei', 'Langmailon' and 'Kumdamsei'. 'Ahonglon' is important as it is mentioned in the manuscript Loyumba Sinyen, a written codification of laws and customs dating back to the twelfth century.'
Another important aspect of the literature of the early period was the treatment of heroism. Rivalry and clashes between the clans resulted in the development of martial skills. Bravery and courage remained central to the numerous conflicts that created a martial culture. It dominated the spirit of the society till the late 19th century. Anonymous writers4 of the early period dealt with the saga of heroism in numerous works like Chengleiron, Tutenglon, Numit Kappa, Thawanthaba Hiran, Chainarol and Nongsamei. Chengleiron stands as one of the earliest known text in Manipuri literature whose style has been widely followed. Opening with a dedication to the patron king, the lyrics are meant to be recited or sung. It is a narrative that spans three generations of kings of the Chenglei clan. Interesting narrations are found in Numit Kappa, an allegory with a strong political overtone which still commands a wide practicality in today's Manipur where there are inter and intra ethnic clashes over power.'
THE FIRST NOTE OF REALISM:
However, the first work to register the note of realism is Thawanthaba Hiran, a tragedy based on a crime story. Departing drastically from the legendary nature of stories in the other works, it was based on historical events. Closely aligned with history, it grapples with the violent and bloody conflicts between the Khuman and the Meetei clans. The horrific violence that characterized the work makes it distinct. Chainarol is an account of combats based on the feuds of the clans. There are twenty-seven stories based on real life incidents.
Besides the numerous literary tracts on the cult of heroism and bravery, the theme of romance and love found abundant expression in the literature of this period. We find works, which can be classified as pure fiction in clear distinction from those fictions based on historical realities. Many of these fictions were based on mythical legends. Nungpan Ponpi Luwaopa narrates the romantic saga of Luwang Prince Luwaopa and Koubru Namoinee, the adopted daughter of the Koubru King. Myth and legend fuse together with divine intervention playing an important role in the narrative. After a series of mishaps and ordeals, the two lovers are finally united. Fate emerges as the overarching power dominating human lives in the tragic story of Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba. Human actions and human characters are helpless in the sweeping changes brought by the elements of fate and destiny.
Panthoibi Khongkul is one of the most valued literary works in Manipuri. It is, perhaps, the most, critically assessed work of Manipuri literature of the early period. As the title suggests, the story deals with the trail or foot prints left by Panthoibi after she leaves the house of her husband. As per this text, Panthoibi is the epitome of freedom which makes her distinct and ahead of her time. Panthoibi, the Meetei Princess, is described as a maiden of rare beauty. Eagerly sought by many powerful kings and princes, she is portrayed as an extremely independent character. Her spirit is symbolic of a natural zest for life. Spurning many proposals for marriage, she was finally persuaded to marry Taram Khoinucha, the Khaba Prince born of Khaba Sokchrongba, king of the Khaba dynasty and the queen Teknga. With great pomp and grandeur, the bride was received in her new household. However, Panthoibi still retained her zest for freedom and independence. She never took to married life as a married woman was meant to. Instead of keeping indoors, she roamed the countryside alone. It was fate that took her by chance to Angoupa Kainou Chingsompa, the Lord of the Langmai hills. Instantly, they were attracted to each other. The love-struck couple decided to break all traditional social barriers by running away. Angoupa wanted to take her to his land. After some dramatic twists and turns, the lovers finally managed to elope. The Khaba warriors led by their king pursued the fleeing couple but eventually failed to capture them. Thus united, the two lovers were received by the Langmai people with dance and music.
THE EPICS OF THE SEVEN INCARNATIONS:
Apart from several other works based on the theme of love, literature from the Moirang region of Manipur stands at a height. A civilization situated on the magnificent Loktak Lake, the culture of the Moirang clan has been noted. Numerous manuscripts of the Moirang region dwell on the theme of love. One of the most popular stories refers to the seven pairs of lovers who are regarded as incarnations of the same souls in different generations or ages. The seven cycles are:5 Akongjamba (hero) and Phouoibi (heroine); Henjunaha (hero) and Leima Lairuklembi (heroine); Khuyol Haoba (hero) and Yaithing Konu (heroine); Kadeng Thangjahanba (hero) and Tonu Laijinglembi (heroine); Ura Naha Khongjomba (hero) and Pidonnu (heroine); Wanglen Pungdingheiba (hero) and Sappa Chanu Silheibi (heroine); Khamba (hero) and Thoibi (heroine).
Even though the development of this literature in its written form may be traced to the twelfth century, the oral tradition had existed much earlier as indicated clearly by the chronicles. The literary tradition that prevailed till the encounter with Hinduism was rooted in the indigenous script, language, culture and social milieu. A pertinent aspect of this literature of the early period is its distinct character unmarked by any traces of outside influence. This remained a characteristic feature till the dawn of the eighteenth century.' (6)
CULTURE BY DICTAT:
The close of the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century mark a turning point in the history of Manipur. The year 1709 witnessed the ascension of Pamheiba to the throne after the death of his father King Charairongba. Rechristening himself as Maharaja Garibniwaz, he issued a dictat pronouncing Hinduism as the new religion of Manipur under the influence of the proselytising Bengali Vaisnavite, Shantidas Goswami. This act engendered an upheaval with colossal implications for a society's identity. Opposition and resistance to this autocratic move to obliterate the traditional faith and culture were brutally repressed. The king and his Bengali mentor left no stone unturned to erase traces of the indigenous faith. Places of worship were destroyed, worship of traditional and local ancestral deities, traditional rituals and rites, including Lai Haraoba festivals, were immediately banned. Burial of the dead was replaced by cremation. Along with the imposition of Hinduism, the manuscripts and texts in the indigenous script were confiscated and burnt in full public view. Universal use of the indigenous script was replaced by the Bengali script.
Shantidas Goswami composed an entirely different chronicle in Bengali known as Vijay Panchali, which was a deliberate attempt to efface the history of the people. It projected the land as Manipur of (the Hindu epic) Mahabharata and traced the lineage and genealogy of the first King of Manipur to Chandrabhanu whose daughter Chitrangada was married to Arjuna, the great Pandava archer. Brabrubahana was the son born of this wedlock. His son Yavistha was then identified with Nongda Lairen Pakhangba who first ascended the throne in Kangla in AD 33. Imported art forms like the Natya Sankirtan actively encouraged by the royal power gained popularity. Corruption in language became the order of the day as the elite and aristocratic class got increasing exposure to Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Bengali. Manipuri vocabulary witnessed introduction of many new words from these languages.'
THE GREAT TRANSLATION ENTERPRISE:
Literature as a social entity conditioned by historico-political, material circumstances naturally did not remain unaffected by these drastic changes. Restrictions on the practice of the indigenous faith and widespread patronage of the newly imported alien faith saw a marked rise in the influence of literatures of Indo-Aryan languages, especially Sanskrit and Bengali. Apart from the changes that can be seen in the formalistic domain of writing, thematic engagements were heavily influenced by the new religion. The two Hindu epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, came to assume a central space in the Manipuri literature of the period.
Garibniwaz patronized one Kshema Singh Moiramba to compose the Ramayana in Manipuri. Five young scholars were engaged in the project, viz. Pramananda Nongyai Khumanthem, Mukundaram Khoisnam, Laxmi Narayan Soiba, Ramcharan Nongthomba and Lakhmi Narayan Saikhuba. Parikshit, a part of the Mahabharata was translated by one of the King's Vaisnavite teachers, Gopaldas. Virat Santhuplon was another work from the Mahabharata produced by crown prince Nabananda. He engaged two eminent writers, Wahengbam Madhabram and Mayengbam Brindavan, to produce this work.
In the sphere of fiction, contact with Indian culture brought about new trends in terms of theme and narration. Mention can be made of Wahengbam Madhabram's Sanamanik, Dhruba Charit, Ananda Pukhrambam's Dhananjoy Laibu Ningba, the anonymous Rupaban and Lalananda Das' Bhakta Gunamrita. Translation of the Bhagavad Gita is also a notable feature of this period. Repressed and marginalized writers who retained the traditional indigenous faith also worked hard, in the face of severe constraints, to produce remarkable literary works anonymously. Several manuscripts written during the period extolled the need to protect and nurture the indigenous faith and culture of the pre-Hindu period. A text known as Sanamahi Laikan stands out distinctly with its rich historical, legendary and mythological references woven in an intricate narrative pattern. Many critics have noted the poetic quality of this work. The other great works of this strand are Khagemba Langjei, Sanamahi Laihui and Chingoiron.
The close of the 19th century marks another significant turning point in the history of Manipur. British victory in the Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891 brought the land under British control. This marked a long chapter of foreign rule, the second in Manipur's history since the Burmese occupied it during 1819-1826 in what has come to be known as Chahi Taret Khuntakpa (Seven Years' Devastation). The British were not only responsible for introducing a new administrative system but also other things like new roads, new judicial system, new modes of trade, schools based on Western system of education, etc. Apart from the technological changes, the British also made inroads in the social landscape of the land with their religion. Christian missionaries played a crucial role in proselytising the non-Meetei people living in the hills.
It seems that the literary domain has not been able to fully capture the long British colonial interlude. Instead, mainstream Manipuri consciousness continued to be steeped in Vaisnavite Hinduism and the rhapsodical art forms it spawned like Sankirtan and Raslila. There was a lull in creative and critical efforts in the field of writing as dance and music enthralled and captivated the collective mindset. An important literary personality of this transition period, Haodijamba Chaitanya, published four significant works -Khamba Thoibigi Warini (1899); Khagi Ngamba (1900); Takhel Ngamba (1902); and Chingthangkhomba (1902). But these works are traditional in essence. Except for the first one, which is based on the romantic saga of Khamba, the orphan, and Thoibi, the princess of Moirang, the remaining three are based on three great kings of Manipur. Engagement with the changing realities generated by the thrust of modernity did not take long to emerge.
THE TRIUMVIRATE USHER IN MODERNITY :
The literary landscape witnessed a dramatic upheaval in the early part of the 20th century with the entry of three overarching figures-Khwairakpam Chaoba, Lamabam Kamal and Hijam Anganghal. New consciousness shaped by forces of modernity, imprinted clearly in their works, heralded the advent of modern Manipuri literature. Their works made a lasting impact on the collective Manipuri consciousness by interrogating many assumptions and notions of received ideas and practices. Their literary works celebrated the richness of their culture, language and history as well as passionately foreshadowed a resurgent literature written in the grass-root Manipuri language with an explicit attempt to foreground its strength and vitality. Their versatility made them foray into different genres-poetry, drama, novel, short story, essay, epic and criticism. Rightly called the founding fathers of modern Manipuri literature they paved the path of modern sensibility in literary expression.
A serious poet, Chaoba never fails to use a word with optimum effect. His collection of poems Thainagi Leirang (The Flower of the Ancient Time) (1933) bears the hallmark of powerful use of language. In prose, too, he was equally prolific. His prose work Chhatra Macha was prescribed by Calcutta University in 1924. The historical novel Labanga Lata (1940) also remains as a work of distinction.
As a poet, Kamal laments the debility and neglect of our rich heritage. He calls forth a vision to reinvigorate the rich traditional culture. Influenced by Western Romanticism, his appeal for nature's beauty and harmony is striking. As a novelist, Kamal is credited for giving Manipuri literature one of its great classics, Madhabi (1930), a story of love and sacrifice.
Anganghal, inspite of poverty compelling him to drop out of school at an early age, gave Manipuri literature some of its most remarkable poems and novels. Of his works, Shingel Indu stands out along with Khamba Thoibi Seireng (Khamba Thoibi Poem), his magnum opus. His lone novel Jahera has continued to exercise a grip on the minds of the people till today. Based on a love story between a Muslim girl and a Meetei boy, it has remained popular. This is a reflection of the existing cultural distance in terms of conjugal relation-ship between the Meeteis and the Meetei Pangals (Muslims). This is the socio-textual reading of a tradition in the literature. His plays Thabal Chongbi, Nimai Sanyas, Ibemma and Poktabi performed by the Manipur Dramatic Union made him a rare genius gifted with great literary skill and imagination. Other literary figures like Hawaibam Nabadwipchandra, Asangbam Minaketan and R.K. Shitaljit made significant impact on the Manipuri literary landscape.
THE UNSUNG GIANT OF MANIPURI LITERATURE:
Hijam Irabot emerged as a towering personality whose overarching presence was felt in almost all aspects of life and consciousness in contemporary Manipur. His radical vision and activities left an indelible mark in the collective psyche of the Manipuris. Apart from being the most charismatic and visionary leader in contemporary political history of Manipur, his contribution to Manipuri literature has been immense. A pervasive legacy of marginalising and obscuring this great personality from the Manipuri mainstream consciousness in the interest of the prevailing power structures-from the colonial and feudal period till today-can be seen clearly. Hailed as the first truly modern poet of Manipur, many of his works were published posthumously. Some have not been published till today. (7)
A pioneer in different spheres of life, Irabot was the first to start a literary journal in Manipuri. Titled Meitei Chanu (Meitei woman), the first volume appeared in 1922 with contributions from great poets like Kamal. His early work titled Seidam Seireng (1924), a collection of poems, was prescribed as a text for schools in Manipur. He wrote the first travelogue in Manipuri titled Mandalay Khongchat (A journey to Mandalay). As a radical revolutionary leader spearheading organised resistance against feudalism and the British imperia-lism, he steadfastly refused to be daunted by imprisonment, deportation, banishment and exile.
An interface between Irabot and history took place during his imprisonment in Sylhet Jail (now in Bangladesh) in 1941.8 It resulted in the production of some of the finest poems in Manipuri literature. Titled Imagi Pujah (The Worship of Mother),9 the poems Irabot wrote during his imprisonment in Sylhet were published posthumously only in 1987. A first glance at these poems immediately strikes the reader with its profound engagement with varied themes like identity, nationhood, patriotism, struggle against injustice, emancipation of the exploited, etc. His poems in this collection (Imagi Pujah) attempt to capture a historical picture of Manipur since the pre-colonial era to the grim realities of contemporary Manipur. A commonly held view amongst critics of Manipuri literature is that if Irabot's poetry were published during the colonial period, those would have made substantive impact on the revolutionary politics of the day. (10)
Post World War II Manipuri literature saw a new trend with playwrights like Haobam Tomba and Sarangthem Bormani drawing deeply on the rich ballads and legends of Moirang. Tama Salon Saphaba, Pidonnu, Thainagi Leirang, Sajik Thaba and Thaja Thaba by Tomba, and Kege Lamja, Tonnu Laijinglembi, Nura Santhalembi and Haorang Leisang Saphabi by Bormani are notable works. G.C. Tongbra's plays created ripples in the literary landscape. With his first published work Mani Mamou, he went on depicting the ironies of life in its various shades and colours. A. Minaketan and R.K. Shitaljit are the new voices of post-war sensibilities in Manipuri poetry. (11)
The rapidly changing political configurations in the post-Second World War era vis-à-vis the swelling tide of decolonization marks a new signpost in Manipur's history, too. The British Union Jack was replaced with the Manipuri national flag in 1947 at Kangla, the historical seat of power in Manipur, marking the end of colonial rule and the beginning of a free independent Manipur. But this ancient Asiatic Kingdom newly transformed into a democratic political structure in the post-colonial period was 'merged' with the newly independent State of India on the 15th October, 1949 in pursuance of the Treaty of Accession. This crucial encounter with India has produced highly conflicting tendencies in terms of explicit moves to impose a homogenizing framework operating at every level of existence-social, political, cultural, legal, economic, etc.
NEW THEME SONG: HEGEMONY AND RESISTANCE:
Contest at the political level with the emergence of armed resistance movements fighting against the 'merger' with India has created the articulation of a conflict at various levels of existence. Elangbam Nilakanta's first published poem 'Manipur' (1949) raises fundamental questions that foretell the shape of things to come:
O Mother Manipur, one day your children
will trace you
Like Dushyanta with eyes bathed in tears,
But by that time where shall they find you?
Where shall they find you?12
Intensification of armed struggle in Manipur has made profound impact on contemporary literature.13 Poetry has plunged deep into this conflict and notable poets like Laishram Samarendra, Yumlembam Ibomcha, Thangjam Ibopishak, and Shri Biren explore the sordid reality, informed, shaped and distorted by the conflict. Ibopishak's collection of poems Apaiba Thawai (The Wandering Soul) (1969) has been hailed by critics as a trendsetter for a new wave of poetry that grapples with the rising tide of conflicts emerging from the crucial encounter in 1949. A growing sense of dissent and anger at the degeneration in society can be discerned clearly. Shri Biren's Asibagi Lamdamda (In the Land of Death) aptly captures the decadence that has eroded the social fabric. Yumlembam Ibomcha's Shingnaba (The Challenge) (1974) documents the extreme note of anger in contemporary Manipuri society. R.K Bhubhansana's 'Marup Ani' (Two friends) in his collection titled Mei Mamgera Budhi Mamgera (Whether the Light is out or the Mind is) expresses the stark and sordid reality of life under the draconian laws like the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958.
Women poets have attempted to scrutinize contemporary life and society in a radical tone. Questions of identity, freedom and status figure prominently in many of these poets whose female sensibilities offer another dimension of social analysis and critique. Memchoubi's Androgi Mei (The Fire of Andro), Borkanya's Mongphamgi Meenok (Laughter of the Grave) and Pukhrambam Urmila's Ashibagi Marakta (In the Midst of the Dead) are notable works that capture the stark social realities. Different genres like drama, novel and short story share similar concerns. In theatre, mention can be made of writers like Arambam Somorendra, Brajachand Khundrakpam, and Kanhailal, whose literary engagements are shot through with stark social realities. In novels, mention can be made of writers like M.K. Binodini, Aribam Chitreshwar, Elangbam Sonamani, Aramban Biren, Loitongbam Pacha Meitei, B.M. Maishnamba, Hijam Guna and M. Borkanya. The short story has emerged as a powerful mode of literary expression with writers like M.K. Binodini, N. Kunjamohon, Khumanthem Prakash, Shri Biren, Hijam Guno and others.
A more detailed study and analysis of Manipuri literature can provide crucial insights of the several shifts in the socio-political history of Manipur. Assuaging as analytical framework through the contours of Manipuri literature through the ages, one indeed feels the need to address crucial debates on the society's attempt to come to terms with the new changes that we witness today.
NOTES & REFERENCES:
1. Similarity should be seen in terms of the fact that both were two new nation states engaged into the same path towards modernization.
2. Historical research provides evidence of the advent of the Manipuri script at the close of the 12th century.
3. Ch. Manihar Singh, A History of Manipuri Literature, (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi), 1966, p. 12.
4. Anonymity was primarily because of a particular practice in the traditional social system where the place of individual agency was given least prominence as against the collective. The royal chronicle Cheitharol Kumbaba, for instance, does not highlight the authorship of the chroniclers. It is similar to the different Vyasas whose names do not figure in writing the Mahabharata.
5. There is also another list of nine incarnations. This is given below in sequence of their appearances
1) Henjunaha (hero) - Thongnang Lairoulembi (heroine);
2) Shamba Naha Lamnganba (hero) - Khamnu Yaidingkonu (heroine);
3) Wanglen Pungdinhanba (hero) - Chakpa Yainu Phishaheibi (heroine);
4) Nganba (hero) - Shangloulembi (heroine);
5) Khoyon haoba (hero) - Yaithing konu (heroine);
6) Akongjamba (hero) - Leima Phouoibi (Phoiding Nura Athoibi) (heroine);
7) Khamba (hero) - Thoibi (heroine);
8) Kadeng Thangjahanba (hero) - Tonu Laijinglembi (heroine);
9) Ura Nahakhongjomba (hero) - Pidongnu (heroine). See Sarangthem Bormani, 2003, Moirang Shaiyon, (Imphal: Published by the author), 3rd edition, p. 4.
9.Hijam Irabot, Imagi Pujah, (Imphal: Irabot Leirak Phonba Lup), 1987. A revised and enlarged version of this collection has been published by Langol publications, Imphal in June 2005.
10. See Soyam Lokendrajit, op.cit. Also see E. Nilakanta, 'Irabot and social and cultural awakening in Manipur', Ningshing Chephong, 1996; Hemango Biswas, 'Irawat Singh: The Artist in Arms', Ningshing Chephong, 1996; L. Damodar, 'Irabot gi kavita: Anouba yening Hunbagi Lambida', Ritu, 1998.
11.Thokchom Ibohanbi, Seminar paper Manipurda houjiki Manipuri sahitya-wari macha, (Imphal: Manipuri Sahitya Parishad), 2005. Also see K. Hemchandra, Seminar paper Houjiki Manipuri sahityagi khongchat sheireng, (Imphal: Manipuri Sahitya Parishad), 2005.
