Manipuri Literature in History
By Thingnam Kishan Singh
Manipuri literature bears the imprint of the state's
encounter with three civilisational paradigms-conversion
into Hinduism in 18th century, annexation by the British
in 1891, and its merger with India in 1949. These
encounters produced the rejection/acceptance syndrome
in literature, reflecting the people's struggle to
come to terms with itself.
Over centuries, the
people inhabiting what is presently called Manipur
experienced numerous upheavals as a result of clashes
with different cultures and powers. Known as Kathe
to the Burmese, Meklee to the Assamese, Mooglie to
the Cacharies, Cassey to the Shans, the people of
this ancient Asiatic Kingdom, have witnessed three
major epoch-making encounters in the vicissitudes
of its history. Based on these encounters, the paper
seeks to scrutinize certain aspects of Manipuri literature
as it unfolds during the travails of its growth and
development, and its engagements with the changing
realities.
Even though signs
of Manipur's contact with Hinduism can be traced to
King Charairongba's reign in the 17th century, it
was King Pamheiba's ascension to the throne in 1709
that saw the brutal imposition of Hinduism. The ensuing
clash between the indigenous Meetei faith and the
alien Hindu faith was essentially an encounter between
two traditional cultures and worldviews. The second
has been the encounter with the Western civilization
vis-à-vis the British conquest of Manipur in 1891
though its contact with the British was established
much earlier. The impact of the encounter with the
British immediately followed by the two World Wars
brought about a massive change in the collective experience
and consciousness reflected in terms of cultural values
being rendered more open, liberal, equalitarian and
humanistic. The second encounter also brought far-reaching
political changes in the wake of the swelling tide
of decolonisation that swept Asia, Africa and Latin
America. Manipur eventually became free from British
control in 1947 and remained a sovereign democratic
state till its 'integration' with the newly independent
State of India on the 15th October 1949. The third
encounter comes with this contact with India. It presents
a queer picture of an encounter with another not too
dissimilar entity.1 With its own logic, the society
and culture of this ancient Asiatic land has experienced
the dynamics of these encounters.
PECULIAR KEEPERS OF
THE ORAL TRADITION
Manipuri literature
till the 17th century has been said to constitute
its early period. Ritual songs and hymns composed
before the advent of the Manipuri script2 form part
of the corpus of the literature of the early period.
These songs and hymns are not treated as folk songs
or part of folklore as they were not widespread amongst
the people. Neither were they handed orally through
successive generations. They were confined to a certain
erudite section of performers whose performances were
limited to 'particular ceremonial functions, ritual
observance and festive occasions.'3
The manuscript Panthoibi-Khongkul
gives an account of the religious and social festival
known as the 'Lai Haraoba' where the Khaba community
paid homage to the deity Nongpok Ningthou and his
consort Panthoibi. This festival, believed by scholars
to be part of the cosmological theory of creation
in Meetei myth, is a repository of numerous songs.
Significant among these Lai Haraoba songs found in
Panthoibi Khongkul are the 'Ougri', 'Khencho', 'Anoirol'
and 'Lairemma Paosa'. 'Ougri' and 'Khencho' are much
more archaic in diction and steep in historical allusions.
'Ougri' is also mentioned in the manuscript Laisra
Pham as a coronation song on the occasion of the ascension
of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba in AD 33.
The royal chronicle
known as Cheitharol Kumbaba begins with Nongda Lairen
Pakhangba's ascension to the throne in AD 33. Another
manuscript titled Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba refers
to the 'Ougri' as an important aspect of Meetei culture
and tradition. The lines of the first part of 'Ougri'
comprise of six syllables each while those in the
second part comprise of eight syllables. Noted for
its cadentic quality, 'Khencho' remains as an obscure
and unintelligible literary piece to the modern generation.
Still considered as one of the most important components
of the Lai Haraoba festival, this immensely rhythmic
song is characterized by its archaic diction. It consists
of lines of six syllables each. 'Lairemma Paosa' and
'Anoirol' are based on the theme of love. Diction
appears to be comparatively simple in these songs
with a lyrical flow created through alliteration and
rhythm. Another song associated with the festival
is the 'Hijan Hirao', a long narrative poem extremely
lyrical and sentimental. Some other prominent songs
associated with rituals are 'Ahonglon', 'Yakeiba',
'Pakhangba Langyensei', 'Langmailon' and 'Kumdamsei'.
'Ahonglon' is important as it is mentioned in the
manuscript Loyumba Sinyen, a written codification
of laws and customs dating back to the twelfth century.
Another important
aspect of the literature of the early period was the
treatment of heroism. Rivalry and clashes between
the clans resulted in the development of martial skills.
Bravery and courage remained central to the numerous
conflicts that created a martial culture. It dominated
the spirit of the society till the late 19th century.
Anonymous writers4 of the early period dealt with
the saga of heroism in numerous works like Chengleiron,
Tutenglon, Numit Kappa, Thawanthaba Hiran, Chainarol
and Nongsamei. Chengleiron stands as one of the earliest
known text in Manipuri literature whose style has
been widely followed. Opening with a dedication to
the patron king, the lyrics are meant to be recited
or sung. It is a narrative that spans three generations
of kings of the Chenglei clan. Interesting narrations
are found in Numit Kappa, an allegory with a strong
political overtone which still commands a wide practicality
in today's Manipur where there are inter and intra
ethnic clashes over power.
THE FIRST NOTE OF
REALISM
However, the first
work to register the note of realism is Thawanthaba
Hiran, a tragedy based on a crime story. Departing
drastically from the legendary nature of stories in
the other works, it was based on historical events.
Closely aligned with history, it grapples with the
violent and bloody conflicts between the Khuman and
the Meetei clans. The horrific violence that characterized
the work makes it distinct. Chainarol is an account
of combats based on the feuds of the clans. There
are twenty-seven stories based on real life incidents.
Besides the numerous
literary tracts on the cult of heroism and bravery,
the theme of romance and love found abundant expression
in the literature of this period. We find works, which
can be classified as pure fiction in clear distinction
from those fictions based on historical realities.
Many of these fictions were based on mythical legends.
Nungpan Ponpi Luwaopa narrates the romantic saga of
Luwang Prince Luwaopa and Koubru Namoinee, the adopted
daughter of the Koubru King. Myth and legend fuse
together with divine intervention playing an important
role in the narrative. After a series of mishaps and
ordeals, the two lovers are finally united. Fate emerges
as the overarching power dominating human lives in
the tragic story of Naothingkhong Phambal Kaba. Human
actions and human characters are helpless in the sweeping
changes brought by the elements of fate and destiny.
Panthoibi Khongkul
is one of the most valued literary works in Manipuri.
It is, perhaps, the most, critically assessed work
of Manipuri literature of the early period. As the
title suggests, the story deals with the trail or
foot prints left by Panthoibi after she leaves the
house of her husband. As per this text, Panthoibi
is the epitome of freedom which makes her distinct
and ahead of her time. Panthoibi, the Meetei Princess,
is described as a maiden of rare beauty. Eagerly sought
by many powerful kings and princes, she is portrayed
as an extremely independent character. Her spirit
is symbolic of a natural zest for life. Spurning many
proposals for marriage, she was finally persuaded
to marry Taram Khoinucha, the Khaba Prince born of
Khaba Sokchrongba, king of the Khaba dynasty and the
queen Teknga. With great pomp and grandeur, the bride
was received in her new household. However, Panthoibi
still retained her zest for freedom and independence.
She never took to married life as a married woman
was meant to. Instead of keeping indoors, she roamed
the countryside alone. It was fate that took her by
chance to Angoupa Kainou Chingsompa, the Lord of the
Langmai hills. Instantly, they were attracted to each
other. The love-struck couple decided to break all
traditional social barriers by running away. Angoupa
wanted to take her to his land. After some dramatic
twists and turns, the lovers finally managed to elope.
The Khaba warriors led by their king pursued the fleeing
couple but eventually failed to capture them. Thus
united, the two lovers were received by the Langmai
people with dance and music.
THE EPICS OF THE SEVEN
INCARNATIONS
Apart from several
other works based on the theme of love, literature
from the Moirang region of Manipur stands at a height.
A civilization situated on the magnificent Loktak
Lake, the culture of the Moirang clan has been noted.
Numerous manuscripts of the Moirang region dwell on
the theme of love. One of the most popular stories
refers to the seven pairs of lovers who are regarded
as incarnations of the same souls in different generations
or ages. The seven cycles are:5 Akongjamba (hero)
and Phouoibi (heroine); Henjunaha (hero) and Leima
Lairuklembi (heroine); Khuyol Haoba (hero) and Yaithing
Konu (heroine); Kadeng Thangjahanba (hero) and Tonu
Laijinglembi (heroine); Ura Naha Khongjomba (hero)
and Pidonnu (heroine); Wanglen Pungdingheiba (hero)
and Sappa Chanu Silheibi (heroine); Khamba (hero)
and Thoibi (heroine).
Even though the development
of this literature in its written form may be traced
to the twelfth century, the oral tradition had existed
much earlier as indicated clearly by the chronicles.
The literary tradition that prevailed till the encounter
with Hinduism was rooted in the indigenous script,
language, culture and social milieu. A pertinent aspect
of this literature of the early period is its distinct
character unmarked by any traces of outside influence.
This remained a characteristic feature till the dawn
of the eighteenth century.6
CULTURE BY DICTAT
The close of the
17th century and the beginning of the 18th century
mark a turning point in the history of Manipur. The
year 1709 witnessed the ascension of Pamheiba to the
throne after the death of his father King Charairongba.
Rechristening himself as Maharaja Garibniwaz, he issued
a dictat pronouncing Hinduism as the new religion
of Manipur under the influence of the proselytising
Bengali Vaisnavite, Shantidas Goswami. This act engendered
an upheaval with colossal implications for a society's
identity. Opposition and resistance to this autocratic
move to obliterate the traditional faith and culture
were brutally repressed. The king and his Bengali
mentor left no stone unturned to erase traces of the
indigenous faith. Places of worship were destroyed,
worship of traditional and local ancestral deities,
traditional rituals and rites, including Lai Haraoba
festivals, were immediately banned. Burial of the
dead was replaced by cremation. Along with the imposition
of Hinduism, the manuscripts and texts in the indigenous
script were confiscated and burnt in full public view.
Universal use of the indigenous script was replaced
by the Bengali script.
Shantidas Goswami
composed an entirely different chronicle in Bengali
known as Vijay Panchali, which was a deliberate attempt
to efface the history of the people. It projected
the land as Manipur of (the Hindu epic) Mahabharata
and traced the lineage and genealogy of the first
King of Manipur to Chandrabhanu whose daughter Chitrangada
was married to Arjuna, the great Pandava archer. Brabrubahana
was the son born of this wedlock. His son Yavistha
was then identified with Nongda Lairen Pakhangba who
first ascended the throne in Kangla in AD 33. Imported
art forms like the Natya Sankirtan actively encouraged
by the royal power gained popularity. Corruption in
language became the order of the day as the elite
and aristocratic class got increasing exposure to
Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Bengali. Manipuri
vocabulary witnessed introduction of many new words
from these languages.
THE GREAT TRANSLATION
ENTERPRISE
Literature as a
social entity conditioned by historico-political,
material circumstances naturally did not remain unaffected
by these drastic changes. Restrictions on the practice
of the indigenous faith and widespread patronage of
the newly imported alien faith saw a marked rise in
the influence of literatures of Indo-Aryan languages,
especially Sanskrit and Bengali. Apart from the changes
that can be seen in the formalistic domain of writing,
thematic engagements were heavily influenced by the
new religion. The two Hindu epics, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata, came to assume a central space in the
Manipuri literature of the period.
Garibniwaz patronized
one Kshema Singh Moiramba to compose the Ramayana
in Manipuri. Five young scholars were engaged in the
project, viz. Pramananda Nongyai Khumanthem, Mukundaram
Khoisnam, Laxmi Narayan Soiba, Ramcharan Nongthomba
and Lakhmi Narayan Saikhuba. Parikshit, a part of
the Mahabharata was translated by one of the King's
Vaisnavite teachers, Gopaldas. Virat Santhuplon was
another work from the Mahabharata produced by crown
prince Nabananda. He engaged two eminent writers,
Wahengbam Madhabram and Mayengbam Brindavan, to produce
this work.
In the sphere of
fiction, contact with Indian culture brought about
new trends in terms of theme and narration. Mention
can be made of Wahengbam Madhabram's Sanamanik, Dhruba
Charit, Ananda Pukhrambam's Dhananjoy Laibu Ningba,
the anonymous Rupaban and Lalananda Das' Bhakta Gunamrita.
Translation of the Bhagavad Gita is also a notable
feature of this period. Repressed and marginalized
writers who retained the traditional indigenous faith
also worked hard, in the face of severe constraints,
to produce remarkable literary works anonymously.
Several manuscripts written during the period extolled
the need to protect and nurture the indigenous faith
and culture of the pre-Hindu period. A text known
as Sanamahi Laikan stands out distinctly with its
rich historical, legendary and mythological references
woven in an intricate narrative pattern. Many critics
have noted the poetic quality of this work. The other
great works of this strand are Khagemba Langjei, Sanamahi
Laihui and Chingoiron.
The close of the
19th century marks another significant turning point
in the history of Manipur. British victory in the
Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891 brought the land under
British control. This marked a long chapter of foreign
rule, the second in Manipur's history since the Burmese
occupied it during 1819-1826 in what has come to be
known as Chahi Taret Khuntakpa (Seven Years' Devastation).
The British were not only responsible for introducing
a new administrative system but also other things
like new roads, new judicial system, new modes of
trade, schools based on Western system of education,
etc. Apart from the technological changes, the British
also made inroads in the social landscape of the land
with their religion. Christian missionaries played
a crucial role in proselytising the non-Meetei people
living in the hills.
It seems that the
literary domain has not been able to fully capture
the long British colonial interlude. Instead, mainstream
Manipuri consciousness continued to be steeped in
Vaisnavite Hinduism and the rhapsodical art forms
it spawned like Sankirtan and Raslila. There was a
lull in creative and critical efforts in the field
of writing as dance and music enthralled and captivated
the collective mindset. An important literary personality
of this transition period, Haodijamba Chaitanya, published
four significant works -Khamba Thoibigi Warini (1899);
Khagi Ngamba (1900); Takhel Ngamba (1902); and Chingthangkhomba
(1902). But these works are traditional in essence.
Except for the first one, which is based on the romantic
saga of Khamba, the orphan, and Thoibi, the princess
of Moirang, the remaining three are based on three
great kings of Manipur. Engagement with the changing
realities generated by the thrust of modernity did
not take long to emerge.
THE TRIUMVIRATE USHER
IN MODERNITY
The literary landscape
witnessed a dramatic upheaval in the early part of
the 20th century with the entry of three overarching
figures-Khwairakpam Chaoba, Lamabam Kamal and Hijam
Anganghal. New consciousness shaped by forces of modernity,
imprinted clearly in their works, heralded the advent
of modern Manipuri literature. Their works made a
lasting impact on the collective Manipuri consciousness
by interrogating many assumptions and notions of received
ideas and practices. Their literary works celebrated
the richness of their culture, language and history
as well as passionately foreshadowed a resurgent literature
written in the grass-root Manipuri language with an
explicit attempt to foreground its strength and vitality.
Their versatility made them foray into different genres-poetry,
drama, novel, short story, essay, epic and criticism.
Rightly called the founding fathers of modern Manipuri
literature they paved the path of modern sensibility
in literary expression.
A serious poet, Chaoba
never fails to use a word with optimum effect. His
collection of poems Thainagi Leirang (The Flower of
the Ancient Time) (1933) bears the hallmark of powerful
use of language. In prose, too, he was equally prolific.
His prose work Chhatra Macha was prescribed by Calcutta
University in 1924. The historical novel Labanga Lata
(1940) also remains as a work of distinction.
As a poet, Kamal
laments the debility and neglect of our rich heritage.
He calls forth a vision to reinvigorate the rich traditional
culture. Influenced by Western Romanticism, his appeal
for nature's beauty and harmony is striking. As a
novelist, Kamal is credited for giving Manipuri literature
one of its great classics, Madhabi (1930), a story
of love and sacrifice.
Anganghal, inspite
of poverty compelling him to drop out of school at
an early age, gave Manipuri literature some of its
most remarkable poems and novels. Of his works, Shingel
Indu stands out along with Khamba Thoibi Seireng (Khamba
Thoibi Poem), his magnum opus. His lone novel Jahera
has continued to exercise a grip on the minds of the
people till today. Based on a love story between a
Muslim girl and a Meetei boy, it has remained popular.
This is a reflection of the existing cultural distance
in terms of conjugal relation-ship between the Meeteis
and the Meetei Pangals (Muslims). This is the socio-textual
reading of a tradition in the literature. His plays
Thabal Chongbi, Nimai Sanyas, Ibemma and Poktabi performed
by the Manipur Dramatic Union made him a rare genius
gifted with great literary skill and imagination.
Other literary figures like Hawaibam Nabadwipchandra,
Asangbam Minaketan and R.K. Shitaljit made significant
impact on the Manipuri literary landscape.
THE UNSUNG GIANT OF
MANIPURI LITERATURE
Hijam Irabot emerged
as a towering personality whose overarching presence
was felt in almost all aspects of life and consciousness
in contemporary Manipur. His radical vision and activities
left an indelible mark in the collective psyche of
the Manipuris. Apart from being the most charismatic
and visionary leader in contemporary political history
of Manipur, his contribution to Manipuri literature
has been immense. A pervasive legacy of marginalising
and obscuring this great personality from the Manipuri
mainstream consciousness in the interest of the prevailing
power structures-from the colonial and feudal period
till today-can be seen clearly. Hailed as the first
truly modern poet of Manipur, many of his works were
published posthumously. Some have not been published
till today.7
A pioneer in different
spheres of life, Irabot was the first to start a literary
journal in Manipuri. Titled Meitei Chanu (Meitei woman),
the first volume appeared in 1922 with contributions
from great poets like Kamal. His early work titled
Seidam Seireng (1924), a collection of poems, was
prescribed as a text for schools in Manipur. He wrote
the first travelogue in Manipuri titled Mandalay Khongchat
(A journey to Mandalay). As a radical revolutionary
leader spearheading organised resistance against feudalism
and the British imperia-lism, he steadfastly refused
to be daunted by imprisonment, deportation, banishment
and exile.
An interface between
Irabot and history took place during his imprisonment
in Sylhet Jail (now in Bangladesh) in 1941.8 It resulted
in the production of some of the finest poems in Manipuri
literature. Titled Imagi Pujah (The Worship of Mother),9
the poems Irabot wrote during his imprisonment in
Sylhet were published posthumously only in 1987. A
first glance at these poems immediately strikes the
reader with its profound engagement with varied themes
like identity, nationhood, patriotism, struggle against
injustice, emancipation of the exploited, etc. His
poems in this collection (Imagi Pujah) attempt to
capture a historical picture of Manipur since the
pre-colonial era to the grim realities of contemporary
Manipur. A commonly held view amongst critics of Manipuri
literature is that if Irabot's poetry were published
during the colonial period, those would have made
substantive impact on the revolutionary politics of
the day.10
Post World War II
Manipuri literature saw a new trend with playwrights
like Haobam Tomba and Sarangthem Bormani drawing deeply
on the rich ballads and legends of Moirang. Tama Salon
Saphaba, Pidonnu, Thainagi Leirang, Sajik Thaba and
Thaja Thaba by Tomba, and Kege Lamja, Tonnu Laijinglembi,
Nura Santhalembi and Haorang Leisang Saphabi by Bormani
are notable works. G.C. Tongbra's plays created ripples
in the literary landscape. With his first published
work Mani Mamou, he went on depicting the ironies
of life in its various shades and colours. A. Minaketan
and R.K. Shitaljit are the new voices of post-war
sensibilities in Manipuri poetry.11
The rapidly changing
political configurations in the post-Second World
War era vis-à-vis the swelling tide of decolonization
marks a new signpost in Manipur's history, too. The
British Union Jack was replaced with the Manipuri
national flag in 1947 at Kangla, the historical seat
of power in Manipur, marking the end of colonial rule
and the beginning of a free independent Manipur. But
this ancient Asiatic Kingdom newly transformed into
a democratic political structure in the post-colonial
period was 'merged' with the newly independent State
of India on the 15th October, 1949 in pursuance of
the Treaty of Accession. This crucial encounter with
India has produced highly conflicting tendencies in
terms of explicit moves to impose a homogenizing framework
operating at every level of existence-social, political,
cultural, legal, economic, etc.
NEW THEME SONG: HEGEMONY
AND RESISTANCE
Contest at the political
level with the emergence of armed resistance movements
fighting against the 'merger' with India has created
the articulation of a conflict at various levels of
existence. Elangbam Nilakanta's first published poem
'Manipur' (1949) raises fundamental questions that
foretell the shape of things to come:
O Mother Manipur,
one day your children
will trace you
Like Dushyanta with eyes bathed in tears,
But by that time where shall they find you?
Where shall they find you?12
Intensification of armed struggle in Manipur has made
profound impact on contemporary literature.13 Poetry
has plunged deep into this conflict and notable poets
like Laishram Samarendra, Yumlembam Ibomcha, Thangjam
Ibopishak, and Shri Biren explore the sordid reality,
informed, shaped and distorted by the conflict. Ibopishak's
collection of poems Apaiba Thawai (The Wandering Soul)
(1969) has been hailed by critics as a trendsetter
for a new wave of poetry that grapples with the rising
tide of conflicts emerging from the crucial encounter
in 1949. A growing sense of dissent and anger at the
degeneration in society can be discerned clearly.
Shri Biren's Asibagi Lamdamda (In the Land of Death)
aptly captures the decadence that has eroded the social
fabric. Yumlembam Ibomcha's Shingnaba (The Challenge)
(1974) documents the extreme note of anger in contemporary
Manipuri society. R.K Bhubhansana's 'Marup Ani' (Two
friends) in his collection titled Mei Mamgera Budhi
Mamgera (Whether the Light is out or the Mind is)
expresses the stark and sordid reality of life under
the draconian laws like the Armed Forces (Special
Powers) Act, 1958.
Women poets have
attempted to scrutinize contemporary life and society
in a radical tone. Questions of identity, freedom
and status figure prominently in many of these poets
whose female sensibilities offer another dimension
of social analysis and critique. Memchoubi's Androgi
Mei (The Fire of Andro), Borkanya's Mongphamgi Meenok
(Laughter of the Grave) and Pukhrambam Urmila's Ashibagi
Marakta (In the Midst of the Dead) are notable works
that capture the stark social realities. Different
genres like drama, novel and short story share similar
concerns. In theatre, mention can be made of writers
like Arambam Somorendra, Brajachand Khundrakpam, and
Kanhailal, whose literary engagements are shot through
with stark social realities. In novels, mention can
be made of writers like M.K. Binodini, Aribam Chitreshwar,
Elangbam Sonamani, Aramban Biren, Loitongbam Pacha
Meitei, B.M. Maishnamba, Hijam Guna and M. Borkanya.
The short story has emerged as a powerful mode of
literary expression with writers like M.K. Binodini,
N. Kunjamohon, Khumanthem Prakash, Shri Biren, Hijam
Guno and others.
A more detailed
study and analysis of Manipuri literature can provide
crucial insights of the several shifts in the socio-political
history of Manipur. Assuaging as analytical framework
through the contours of Manipuri literature through
the ages, one indeed feels the need to address crucial
debates on the society's attempt to come to terms
with the new changes that we witness today.
NOTES & REFERENCES
1 Similarity should
be seen in terms of the fact that both were two new
nation states engaged into the same path towards modernization.
2 Historical research
provides evidence of the advent of the Manipuri script
at the close of the 12th century.
3 Ch. Manihar Singh,
A History of Manipuri Literature, (New Delhi: Sahitya
Akademi), 1966, p. 12.
4 Anonymity was primarily
because of a particular practice in the traditional
social system where the place of individual agency
was given least prominence as against the collective.
The royal chronicle Cheitharol Kumbaba, for instance,
does not highlight the authorship of the chroniclers.
It is similar to the different Vyasas whose names
do not figure in writing the Mahabharata.
5 There is also
another list of nine incarnations. This is given below
in sequence of their appearances 1) Henjunaha (hero)
- Thongnang Lairoulembi (heroine); 2) Shamba Naha
Lamnganba (hero) - Khamnu Yaidingkonu (heroine); 3)
Wanglen Pungdinhanba (hero) - Chakpa Yainu Phishaheibi
(heroine); 4) Nganba (hero) - Shangloulembi (heroine);
5) Khoyon haoba (hero) - Yaithing konu (heroine);
6) Akongjamba (hero) - Leima Phouoibi (Phoiding Nura
Athoibi) (heroine); 7) Khamba (hero) - Thoibi (heroine);
8) Kadeng Thangjahanba (hero) - Tonu Laijinglembi
(heroine); 9) Ura Nahakhongjomba (hero) - Pidongnu
(heroine). See Sarangthem Bormani, 2003, Moirang Shaiyon,
(Imphal: Published by the author), 3rd edition, p.
4.
6 Singh, 1966, op.
cit., pp. 105-06.
7 Soyam Chatradhari,
Hijam Irabot, (Imphal: Soyam Publication), 1996.
8 Soyam Lokendrajit,
'Irabot Ki Seireng', Ritu, (Imphal: Manipur Sahitya
Parishad), 1997, 9.
9 Hijam Irabot, Imagi
Pujah, (Imphal: Irabot Leirak Phonba Lup), 1987. A
revised and enlarged version of this collection has
been published by Langol publications, Imphal in June
2005.
10 See Soyam Lokendrajit,
op.cit. Also see E. Nilakanta, 'Irabot and social
and cultural awakening in Manipur', Ningshing Chephong,
1996; Hemango Biswas, 'Irawat Singh: The Artist in
Arms', Ningshing Chephong, 1996; L. Damodar, 'Irabot
gi kavita: Anouba yening Hunbagi Lambida', Ritu, 1998.
11 Thokchom Ibohanbi,
Seminar paper Manipurda houjiki Manipuri sahitya-wari
macha, (Imphal: Manipuri Sahitya Parishad), 2005.
Also see K. Hemchandra, Seminar paper Houjiki Manipuri
sahityagi khongchat sheireng, (Imphal: Manipuri Sahitya
Parishad), 2005.
12 Quoted in Singh,
1966. op. cit., p. 256.
13 K. Hemchandra,
op. cit.
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